250 BC – 227 CE
The Parthian Kingdom, which initially was a small territorial entity east of the Caspian Sea, at its zenith encompassed most of what is now modern Iran.
The kingdom’s heyday came a century later, after it liberated itself from Seleucid rule. At that time, the country maintained vigorous connections with China in the east and Rome in the west.
Clashes with Rome ultimately led to the kingdom’s demise. Its existence was associated with legendary historical figures — kings who ruled at different times but shared the same name: Mithridates.
Parthian territories included both cities inherited from the Seleucid Empire (Babylon, Ecbatana, Persepolis, Antioch) and new ones integral to early Iranian history — Ctesiphon, Susa, Ray, and Nisa.
Ctesiphon, now located in Iraq, became the hub of the state’s cultural and economic life.
During the Parthian period, Greek cultural influence on its territory gradually waned, while Iranian influence grew. This era also saw the emergence of a distinct Parthian script.
Knowledge about Parthian culture remains limited, primarily derived from surviving frescoes, statues, and reliefs.
The high level of cultural and social organization in the Parthian state is evidenced by its status as essentially the last power in the region to practice religious tolerance.
